The colonies were also subdivided into smaller administrative units as follows: cercles under commandant du Cercles, subdivisions under chef de subdivisions, and at the next level, cantons were administered by African chiefs who were in effect like the British warrant chiefs.While France tried to maintain this highly centralized system, in some parts of its colonies where it encountered strongly established centralized state systems, the French were compelled to adopt the policy of association, a system of rule operating in alliance with preexisting African ruling institutions and leaders. It confronted a determined and sagacious military leader in the Ethiopian emperor Menelik II. Thus Spain and Portugal set up colonies in Central and South America after it was discovered by Columbus. One way to demonstrate national preeminence was through the acquisition of territories around the world, including Africa.

Each of the countries considered the other a threat, thereby eliciting a lot of worries when one seemed to be a step further.

Instead of professional soldiers, small groups of organized fighters with a mastery of the terrain mounted resistance by using the classical guerrilla tactic of hit-and-run raids against stationary enemy forces.

As a result of industrialization, major social problems grew in Europe: unemployment, poverty, homelessness, social displacement from rural areas, and so on.

But as the length of some resistance struggles amply demonstrates, Africans put up the best resistance with the resources they had.By 1900 much of Africa had been colonized by seven European powers—Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Italy.

It was established in what is now Tunisia and became a major power in the Mediterranean by the 4th century BC. Scullard mentions plans by such as Gaius Gracchus in the late 2nd century BC, Julius Caesar and Augustus in the mid- and late 1st century BC to establish a new Roman colony near the same site. For instance, Britain was heavily reliant on free trade at the time for its economic status. This system operated in alliance with preexisting political leaderships and institutions. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011. The Carthaginians themselves sent out expeditions to explore and establish colonies along Africa’s Atlantic coast.

This was for power reasons, where none of the European countries wanted to be considered weaker. After the third and final war between them, the Third Punic War (150–146 BC), Rome completely destroyed Carthage. Web. Each of the European countries, Portugal, France, Spain, England and Italy amongst others wanted to maintain their economic status as well as continue to expand (Makong’o et al 6). Some modern scholars also blame the current under-development of Africa on the colonial era.North Africa experienced colonisation from Europe and Western Asia in the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians.Under Egypt’s Pharaoh Amasis (570–526 BC) a Greek mercantile colony was established at Naucratis, some 50 miles from the later Alexandria. The imperatives of capitalist industrialization—including the demand for assured sources of raw materials, the search for guaranteed markets and profitable investment outlets—spurred the European scramble and the partition and eventual conquest of Africa. During and after the Berlin Conference various European countries sent out agents to sign so-called treaties of protection with the leaders of African societies, states, kingdoms, decentralized societies, and empires.

Colonial policies and directives were implemented through a central administrative organization or a colonial secretariat, with officers responsible for different departments such as Revenue, The British colonies were often subdivided into provinces headed by provincial commissioners or residents, and then into districts headed by district officers or district commissioners.


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